Part 2.1. Status of landscape and biological diversity

Russia occupies the 1/8th part of global land and most of non-tropical Eurasia. Despite its rich landscape diversity, it is rather poor in biological diversity if compared with countries of a more southern geographic position. Its territory presents landscapes of 8 natural zones (Annex 5.1.2) with over 11,000 species of vascular plants, 320 - of mammals, about 730 - of birds, 75 - of reptiles, about 30 amphibians and 270 fresh-water fish species (data of the Institute of Botany RAS and Institute of Ecology and Evolution Problems RAS). About 8 % of global vascular plant flora, 7 % of mammal fauna and almost 8 % of bird fauna are represented in Russia. The environment of lands which presently are integrated into Russia has been exposed to human activities since long ago. During many centuries steppe areas were used as a famous migration passageway between Asia and Europe, a zone populated by nomadic tribes and a trade way from China and India to European countries (silk way). Russia as a state was established about 11 centuries ago and expanded its frontiers mainly through annexation of low-populated lands of the North (since 12th - 13th centuries) and Siberia (since 14th - 16th centuries) and then of more developed western (16th -17th centuries) and southern (18th - 19th centuries) areas. In spite of its long history of economic development, lands of Northern Eurasia proved relatively little disturbed, especially in Siberia and Far East. Constraints in industrial and agricultural expansion into these regions are associated with wide propagation of permafrost, cold climate and poorly cultivable lands (Strategic Resources of Russia, 1996). The highest transformation of biological and landscape diversity is specific of Northern Caucasia, Volga Region, Central European Russia and Southern Siberia. The other regions have been experiencing basically local anthropogenic impacts (extraction of oil, gas and other mineral resources, forest clearings, building of hydraulic engineering facilities, local agriculture) and due to this almost 90 % of tundra, up to 70 - 75 % of taiga forests and 20 -30 % of Asian steppes preserve their close-to-the-wild state. Large areas of mountain ecosystems, particularly in the North-East of Siberia, Kamchatka peninsula and Okhotsk Sea coast still remain close to the wild.. At the same time, 2 biomes of Russia, namely broad-leaved forests and steppes, became almost extinct under the human impact in historic time and are found on small areas, most of them being protected. For example, zapovedniks within a steppe biome occupy only 0.4 %.

A system of protected natural areas encompassing all natural zones and principal mountain massifs has been being generated in Russia for more than 80 years. A vegetation layer and ecosystems of Russia are conserved in 95 zapovedniks and 31 national parks. In addition, there are several thousands of protected areas with restricted natural resources use. However their distribution over the country lacks uniformity and they do not reflect overall natural diversity of ecosystems and landscapes. In the nearest future, it will become difficult to solve a problem of a representative biodiversity range on protected areas of North Eurasia.

Russian landscapes may also be considered as a reserve for developing an international network of protected areas.

Key geographic specific features of Russia that govern biological diversity and conditions for its conservation are determined by its continental part sizes, geological background (relatively young landscapes), specifics of relief (combination of mountains and flatlands), biogeographic homogeneity (the whole territory is incorporated into a single Holarctic Region), climatic and landscape mosaics, and in the regions of ancient assimilation - by the impact of economic activities. Some of the above features will be discussed in more detail below.

Paleographic and geomorphological factors. Russia occupies a northern part of the largest continent, including both oceanic and continental sectors of Eurasia. Its most ancient parts pertain to the pre-Cambrian platforms - Russian and Siberian, which now are overlapped by young deposits (glacial, aeolian). Between the platforms there is a zone of Hercynian orogenesis represented by low Urals ridge and West Siberian and North Siberian sloping lowlands. These lowlands used to be covered with the sea not once in the past.

In the north, Russian boundaries are formed by arctic seas, maritime zones of which are migration passways for circumpolar arctic and boreal plants and animals. Therefore over the most of the Russian territory flora and fauna lack originality and has few endemic species. In the south, this region is bounded by high mountains of Transbaikalia, Sayans, Altai, Tien-Shan, and Caucasus which served as plain biota refugiums in the periods of glaciation and sea transgressions. At present they are kind of a sound biogeographic barrier on the biotic exchange path and are characteristic of high endemism.

Hydrological network and climate. Russia's hydrological network is indicative of exclusively high density. Main continental areas are occupied by water basins of the Arctic Ocean rivers (Severnaya (Northern) Dvina, Pechora, Ob, Yenisei, Pyasina, Khatanga, Olenek, Lena, Indigirka, Kolyma), of the Black Sea rivers (Dnieper, Don, Kuban) and those of the Caspian Sea (Volga, Ural). Most of the rivers are characterized by meridional streams, thus facilitating migration of southern species to the north (e.g. taiga ones to tundra, nemoral - to taiga, steppe - to the forest zone and more hygrophilous species of plants and animals to arid zones). Abundance of rivers, lakes and marshes leads to a high share of water and circumaqueous species in Russian biota, particularly among plants, birds and mammals.

The Russian territory is open for western atmospheric transfer. However monsoon transfer of the eastern ocean sector is limited mainly by eastern ridges along the Pacific coast. Russia is also open for the Arctic atmosphere mass throughout its northern boundary. Nearly all Russian territory is situated in the negative winter temperature zone, this imposing constraints on the distribution of many thermophilic plants and animals (subtropical and tropical). In the course of holocenosis, the territory of Russia and some neighboring countries underwent six powerful humidization-aridization and warming-cooling climatic cycles accompanied by biota migrations and formation of refugiums with relict species. Sections with relict biota left from past climatic epochs (glacial and interglacial periods) are rather frequent in European Russia (sections with calciferous flora) and Eastern Siberia (fragments of relict steppes).

Biogeographic features. Together with Western and Central Europe and countries of Northern Eurasia, Russia is situated inside the Holarctic Region. According to the IUCN classification, the following biomes are presented within Russian borders: tundra, temperate zone coniferous forests, temperate zone broad-leaved forests, grasslands (steppes), drylands, and East Siberian cold mountains. This differentiation of land ecosystems is rather inadequate due to poor knowledge of Russian-language biogeographic literature. A biodiversity level of Russia is dictated by a higher landscape diversity level presented by zonal ecosystems: polar deserts, arctic and subarctic tundras, forest tundra, northern, central and southern taiga, larch forests and thin forests, mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forests, broad-leaved forests, forest steppe, grasslands, moderately dry and dry steppes, semiarid and arid regions, intrazonal ecosystems - marshes, and oligotrophic, mesotrophic and eutrophic swamps, floodplain meadows and forests; various mountain ecosystems (forest, steppe, grassland, tundra, nivalic and petrophilic).

Polar deserts. This biome is characterized by its circumpolar disposition. In Northern Eurasia it is spread over the Arctic Ocean islands and archipelagoes (Northern Island of Novaya Zemlia (New Land), Franz Josef Land, etc.). Landscape diversity of these regions is poor due to the young age of surfaces, climate extremes and, correspondingly, poor biota scope. Landscapes of various-age moraine and sea sediments and stony substrates are widely displayed. Micro- and nanoreliefs are formed by stony rings, spots, mineral polygons, and mounds. The vegetation cover is noted for absolute domination of spore plants - algae, lichens, liverworts (Hepaticae) and mosses (Bryophytes). They form a fine film of life together with flower plant fragments (Saxifraga sp.sp., Puccinelia sp.sp., Poa sp.sp.). Local flora of vascular plants (species number per 100 km2) amounts to only 20 - 30 species. For instance, flora of the Franz Josef Land located totally in the polar desert biome comprises about 60 species. Common species from the vertebrate animals' pool are those associated with the sea - polar bear (Ursus maritinus), polar fox (Alopex lagopus), walrus (Odobaenus rosmarus), and seals. Landscapes and biota of this biome are conserved in a special zakaznik Zemlia Frantsa Iosifa (Franz Josef Land).

Arctic tundras. The biome has circumpolar disposition. In European Russia, arctic tundras are presented on the Arctic Ocean islands (Southern Island of the Novaya Zemlia (New Land), the Kolguev, etc.). In the Asian part of Russia it forms a relatively narrow belt along the Kara, Laptev, North East and Chukchee Seas (peninsulas Yamal, Taimyr, coast of Yakutia and Chukotka) and on archipelagoes Novosibirskie Islands and Severnaya Zemlia (Northern Land). Maritime plain landscapes with polygonal, spotty and spotty-moundy tundras, polygonal wetlands and brine marshes of delta areas are common for these regions. The vegetation layer demonstrates a large share of flower plants with dominating Dryas octopetala, D. puctata, Cassiope tetragona, Salix polaris, Graminae, Cyperacae and Saxifragacea. Lichens and mosses form a 5 - 10 cm stratum preventing deep melting of permafrost. Local flora of this biome comprises 70 - 100 species per 100 km2. Vertebrate fauna normally contains reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), polar fox (Alopex lagopus), lemmings (Lemmus sibirica, Dycrostonyx torquatus), geese, alpine ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus), numerous species of ducks and waders. For the last decades, a tendency to arctic tundra destruction has been manifested in locations of oil and gas prospecting, extraction and transportation, i.e. on the Kolguev island, Yamal and Gydan peninsulas. The Novaya Zemlia nuclear test site is situated within this biome. Rare and extinct plant species are few in number and best known of rare animal species are walrus (Odobaenus rosmarus), Bewick's swan (Cygnus bewickii), snow goose (Chen hyperboreus) and barnacles (Branta sp.sp.). Biota and landscapes of arctic tundra are presented in zapovedniks Bolshoi Arktichesky (on islands and coast of Taimyr peninsula), Ust-Lensky (in the Lena river estuary) and Ostrov Vrangela (Vrangel Island) (in the Chukchee Sea).

Subarctic tundra. This landscape structure is dominated by spotty and polygonal plain tundras, moundy wetlands, and bushlands in tundra river valleys. The vegetation layer demonstrates a wide range of shrubs (Betula nana, Salis sp.sp., Alnaster fruticosa), small shrubs (Vaccinium sp.sp., Empetrum nigrum), Graminae and Cyperacae. Bryoflora is remarkably abundant in species (150 - 200 in specific points). Local flora of vascular plants, in comparison with the previous biome, is more than doubled and comprises 250 - 300 species per 100 km2. Vertebrate fauna also is several times richer - at a specific geographic point there are found 70 - 100 bird species and about 20 - 25 mammals (Annex 5.2.16-A.5.2.21). Among rare species, most interesting are falcons (Falco rusticolus, F. peregrinus), swans (Cygnus bewickii), geese (Anser erythropus) and barnacles (Rufibrenta ruficolis). In European Russia, subarctic tundra biota is conserved only in the Lapland zapovednik (Kola peninsula) and in Asian Russia - in Taimyrsky and Putoransky zapovedniks (mountain tundras of the Taimyr), in Ust-Lensky zapovednik, in the Bering natural park and some zakazniks.

Boreal coniferous forests (dark-coniferous taiga). This biome is common for flatlands and mountains of European Russia and Siberia. It is specific of a comparatively high level of landscape diversity, even though its vegetation layer is monotonous and consists of merely 2 - 3 tree species: spruce (Picea abies, P. obovata), fir tree (Abies sibirica), cedar (Pinus sibirica), pine tree (Pinus sylvestris), and larch (Larix sp.sp.). Diversity of taiga landscapes is dictated by a lot of factors: paleogeographic, geochemical, climatic and biogeographic. For example, mountain spruce forests on nepheline rocks and fresh moraine deposits are common for the Kola peninsula. On the Valdai Uplands in the north-east of European Russia, taiga landscapes (spruce forests, wetlands, meadows) are formed on the argillaceous moraine of oses and kames, fluvioglacial sands of the outwashed plain and in river valleys. In West Siberia they are formed on horizontal tertiary and quaternary deposits (glacial and marine). This biome is notably more diverse, if compared with tundra: local vascular floras consist of 400 - 700 species, nesting bird fauna - 120 - 150 species, and mammal fauna - up to 40 - 50. Russian taiga flora and fauna almost completely lack endemic species. Rare plant and animal species are low in number (Annex 5.2.16-A.5.2.26). For instance, there are no rare mammal species and among birds may be singled out only predators and Siberian spruce grouse (Falcipennis falcipennis). In this biome, landscapes of plain and mountain taiga and habitats of typical forest animals, such as brown bear (Ursus arctos), elk (Alces alces), lynx (Lynx lynx), otter (Lutra lutra), beaver (Castor fiber), and sable (Martes zibellina), can be identified as subjects for conservation. Ecosystems of the biome are protected in zapovedniks Kivach, Kostomukshsky, Pinezhsky, Pechoro-Ilychsky, Malaya Sosva, Kerzhensky, Visimsky, Zeisky, Barguzinsky, Central Siberian, etc (Annex 5.2.11, A.5.2.28).

Larch forests (light-coniferous taiga and thin forest). This biome is common for central and eastern Siberia, Okhotsk coast, Far East and Transbaikalia. Larch forests (Larix dahurica, L. sibirica, L. sukaczewii) occupy slopes of low mountains and northern river valleys filled with loose quaternary sediments permafrost-fixed for hundreds of meters deep. Debris of Japanese stone pine (Pinus pumila), mountain thin forests and tundra are widespread in these regions. This biome is the poorest in biodiversity among forest biomes. Its local flora comprises no more than 400 - 450 vascular plant species, mammal fauna consists of 30 - 40 species and nesting birds are represented by 70 - 80 species (Annex.5.2.16-5.2.26). Fragments of cold relict steppes until they reach the boundary with tundra are the only exception. They often occupy southern slopes of mountains or wide sections of river valleys, incl. the Lena river. The biome of Siberian larches actually has no endemic plant and animal species, rare and endangered species are scarce. Landscape and biological diversities of this biome are protected in Putoransky, Magadansky, Olekminsky, and other zapovedniks.

Broad-leaved and coniferous-broad-leaved forests. In Russia, this biome has a disjunctive geographic range, i.e. it is found on the Russian Plain and in the south of Far East. Forest dominants are oak, maple, linden, and ash tree species (Querqus sp.sp., Acer sp.sp., Tilia sp.sp., Fraxinus sp.sp.). Close to the northern boundary of the range, forests are marked with coniferous species: spruce (Picea abies, P. obovata, P. ajanesis), cedar (Pinus sibirica), and fur tree (Abies sibirica, A. nephrolepis, A. holophilia). Pine tree (Pinus sylvestris) is spread over the most dry sections with sandy and stony soils almost throughout the geographic range. As this part of the biome is located close to the boundary, it is noted for a high level of plant and animal diversity both boreal and nemoral. Local flora reaches 700 - 800 species, mammal fauna consists of 50 - 60 species (up to 70 in Far East) and bird fauna offers 120 - 150 species (Annex 5.2.16-A.5.2.26). Biota endemism is not high though rare species of plants (Cyprepedium sp.sp., Panax schin-seng, Trapa sp.sp.) and animals (Panthers tigris, P. pardus) have relatively wide representation. Broad-leaved forests are protected in zapovedniks Bashkirsky, Volzhsko-Kamsky, Voronezhsky, Bryansky Les, Zhigulevsky, Ilmensky, Kedrovaya Pad, Sikhote-Alinsky, Les na Vorksle, Prioksko-Terrasny, Ussuriisky, Khopersky, Shulgan-Tash, Khingansky, and others (see Annex 5.2.11).

Forest steppe and steppe. Within Russia and adjacent countries, zonal steppe ecosystems have a broad geographic range that includes a southern part of the Russian Plain, south of West Siberian Lowlands, and intermountain hollows in the south of Central Siberia and Transbaikalia. The landscape is dominated with monotonous grasslands where the gramineous prevail. Biological diversity of the biome is very high. In forest steppe, for example, local floras are composed of up to 900 - 1,100 species of vascular plants, in dry steppes - 600 - 700, and in arid steppes - 400 - 500 species. Local fauna is a little inferior to the forest one and comprises 40 - 50 mammal species and 80 - 90 nesting birds. Flora and fauna endemism is not vividly expressed. Endemic plants include a lot of relict species that have habitats on limestone and has remained in the steppe zone since the interglacial period.

Steppes, particularly in European Russia, are almost completely plowed up. That is why their landscape and biological diversities need urgent conservation and restoration. This zone is indicative of a high level of rare and endangered flora and fauna species: among plants - Stipa sp.sp., Adonis vernalis, Crambe tatarica, Centaurea sp.sp., Fritillaria sp.sp., Paeonia tenuifolia, among vertebrates - Vormela peregusna and birds of prey. Positive experimental results of ecological restoration efforts were obtained in Northern Caucasia and some of Central Russian oblasts. The steppe biome is facing a burning problem of generating an ecological network of protected areas. Current conservation of steppe ecosystems is carried out in zapovedniks Bashkirsky, Galichia Gora, Dagestansky, Povolzhskaya Step, Severo-Ossetinsky, Khopersky, Tsentralno-Chernozemny, and Orenburgsky (Annex 5.2.11).

Semiarid and arid lands. Semiarid and arid ecosystems of Russia are located to the south of arid steppes. As a zonal phenomenon, they are spread over the Caspian Lowlands and in Dagestan (deltas of the Terek and Samur rivers, and others). Asian Russia demonstrates semiarid and arid fragments on the Kazakhstan border, in hollows of the South Siberian mountains, in the south of Tuva and in Transbaikalia. Within this biome, prevailing are found ecosystems with wormwood (Artemisia sp.sp.), gramineous (Festuca sp.sp., Agropyrum sp.sp., Poa Bulbosa, Stipa sp.sp., Bothriochloa sp.sp., Aristida sp.sp.), ephemerals and ephemeroids (Tulipa sp.sp., Eremurus sp.sp., Alyssum sp.sp., Papaver sp.sp.) along with shrubs and trees (Calligonum sp.sp., H. aphyllum, Cragana arborescens). Forests consisting of Populus sp.sp., Salix sp.sp.., Eleagnus sp.sp. and meadows with Phargmites communis, Calamagrostis sp.sp., Elytrigia repens, Glycyrrhiza glabra are common for banks and deltas of arid zone rivers.

Semiarid and arid ecosystems of North Eurasia are basically used for cattle grazing, occasionally - for hay-making and lumber harvesting. Biome large areas are used for irrigated land cultivation. Anthropogenic transformation has led to drastic changes in the biome landscape and biological diversities. Wild ecosystems on tremendous areas are replaced by broken sands, saline lands and depleted pastures. All periphery lands of the biome are undergoing intensive aridization.

Local floras of semideserts consist of 150 - 250 species, those of deserts - 100 - 150 sp.; mammal fauna enumerates 25 - 30 and that of nesting birds - 40 - 50 species. In addition, high diversity of reptilian species should be particularly marked with their local fauna comprising 25 - 30 species. A valuable biological object to be conserved and reasonably used is saiga population (Saiga tatarica) in the Caspian Lowlands (Astrakhan oblast and Kalmykia). Intensive exploitation of Russian arid ecosystems has led to the biodiversity depletion and growth of the rare species number, especially among vertebrates: Felis manul, Aquila rapax, etc.

Biological and landscape diversities of Russian semiarid and arid lands are protected in zapovedniks Chernye Zemli, Dagestansky, and Ubsunurskaya Kotlovina.

Russian landscape and biological diversities have been preserved much better than the same in Central Europe and South and South-East Asia, for the exception of biomes of European steppes and broad-leaved forests which became almost completely extinct as far back as past centuries. The anthropogenic transformation level of North Eurasian ecosystems can be judged from the data listed in Table 2.

Table 2. Share of lands that undergone complete transformation in the course of economic activities in key natural zones of Russia

Apart from the fully transformed lands, large areas of natural biomes are occupied by ecosystems under various degradation or restoration phases. Up to 20 % of the tundra zone lands demonstrate various pasture degression phases as a result of domesticated reindeer grazing. In vicinities of the Copper-Nickel Complexes in Norilsk (Taimyr peninsula) and Monchegorsk (Kola peninsula), vegetation is destroyed for dozens kilometers in radii by air emissions of sulfur and nitrogen compounds.

Locations marked with technogenic violations in oil, gas and other mineral resources extraction sites make up 3 - 8 % of the taiga zone lands in various regions. The same sites are common for the Kola peninsula, West and North-East Siberia. Annually, over 10,000 km2 forest areas are cut out and withdrawn; tens of thousands km2 are marked for forest fires. A certain portion of clearings and burnt-out lands get waterlogged, though reforestation occurs on about all destroyed areas.

A share of plowed fields deviates from 35 to 80 % of the total steppe area, with interfluve black soils being plowed up almost completely. A humus content in steppe soils has 1.5 - 2.0 times decreased for the last one hundred years. Considerable areas of the zone are eroded, salinated and flooded. Large artificial water basins were built on steppe rivers - the Volga, Dnieper and Don, this having resulted in destruction of floodplain ecosystems and extinction of unique interfluve steppes.

Russian dry steppes and semideserts have been dramatically transformed into devastated pastures which caused wind erosion, substitution of aboriginal vegetation, and massive loss of cattle in the 1980s. To-day, the natural vegetation cover is gradually recovering.

Analysis of the data on primary and secondary successions of tundra, taiga, steppe and arid ecosystems (Table 3) will allow to make a real assessment of how profound are alterations in North Eurasian ecosystems as a result of economic activities and whether they are potentially reproducible.

Table 3. Age of primary and secondary successions in certain zonal ecosystems of North Eurasia.

The data available on the length of vegetation restoration periods after anthropogenic disruptions make it feasible to single out a number of zonal ecosystems according to their adaptability to fast restoration: steppes, semiarid areas, dark-coniferous taiga, oak woods, light-coniferous taiga, and tundra.

However, for the regions with large concentrations of disruptions and transformed aboriginal biota, restoration of ecosystems is challengeable. On the one hand, availability of species-introducents (Table 4) can serve as obstacle to the initiation of the second succession, and on the other hand, this role can be played by total depletion of flora and fauna, incl. rare species extinction. Their share is the highest in Northern Caucasia: in Dagestan, Chechnia, Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia, Ingushetia, Krasnodar and Stavropol krais, where it makes up from 12 to 25 %. Steppes of the south of European Russia and regions of South Siberia, Transbaikalia and Far East incorporate from 7 to 12 % of rare species in their floras. Central regions of European Russia are marked for no more than 5 - 7 % and the taiga zone flora - below 2 - 5 % (Annex 5.1.2).

Table 4 Share of synanthropic species in flora of individual Russian zapovedniks

Vegetation cover status. A status of the Russian vegetation cover causes serious alarm due to high rates of substitution of primary vegetation for secondary one (Annex 5.2.3). Within the last 25 years, the tundra zone has experienced a 2-fold reduction of lichen tundra areas; degradation processes of reindeer pastures are observed on 700 thou sq km areas versus total 2 800 thou sq km. Anthropogenic gramineous communities are frequently found to have replaced typical moss-shrub vegetation.

Annual clearing areas have twice reduced in the taiga zone for the past 10 years (from 1998 to 1997), yet negative processes in the taiga vegetation layer are still underway. First, intensive rejuvenation of forests, substitution of zonal coniferous forests (Picea abies, P. obovata, Pinus sibirica, P. sylvestris) for birch (Betula sp.sp.), aspen (Populus tremula) and alder (Alnus incana) forests as well as death of young trees in the course of cutting are going on in Russia. Protection of Russian forests is accomplished in compliance with the Russian Federation Forest Code (1997) which ranks all forests in three categories: 1 - prohibited for cutting (forests of zapovedniks, national parks, forest tundra, resorts, river banks), 2 - restricted forest use in low-in-forest locations and mountain regions, 3 - with prohibited industrial timber harvesting. A share of forests belonging to the 1st and 2nd category has been growing in the few past years due to a territorial increase of protected areas. Reforestation is carried out on 3,000 - 3,500 km 2 per year. Efforts to assist natural forest restoration are being undertaken on another 8,000 - 10.000 sq km.

Most serious vegetation destruction problems are being faced in the Kalmyk Republic and Astrakhan oblast where intensive aridization is taking place. Here, reclamation of eroded lands is fulfilled annually on 300 - 400 km 2.

Northern Caucasus is suffering notable losses in steppe ecosystems and Mediterranean-type xerophilic forests. About 80 % of Krasnodar krai steppes are plowed up and they fully vanished on the Azov-Kuban plain. Mediterranean-type xerophilic forests of the Black Sea coast are also under threat of getting extinct. They still exist only in fragments in the vicinity of Novorossiisk, Anapa and Gelendjik on steep mountain slopes and are insufficiently presented on protected areas.

Forest status. In 1993, the total area of lands owned by the Russian Forest Fund was 11,81 mln sq km. The current forest structure and dynamics will be possible to accurately evaluate after the completion of the 1998 inventory to be made by the State Forest Fund. Changes in the forest area and age structure in Russia are illustrated by table 5.

Table 5 Dynamics of forest area and age structure during 1966-1993 and prospects for 2000 (for Rosleskhoz forests, as per 1 January 1993)

Protection of forests in Russia is regulated by the Forest Code (1997) which categorizes them into 3 groups: 1 - strictly protected (forests in zapovedniks, national parks, forest tundra, recreation zones, riversides), 2 - forests in poorly deforested and mountain regions where limited exploitation is allowed, 3 - forests allocated for industrial timber harvesting. The area of forests designated as group 1 is progressively growing during the last years due to increasing area of protected territories.

Larch (Larix sp.sp.), pine (Pinus sylvestris), birch (Betula sp.sp), and spruce (Picea abies, P. obovata) forests predominate at the territory of Russia. Areas occupied by different types of forests are compared in table 6.

Table 6 Areas occupied by different types of forests (as per 1 January 1993)

Taken together, forests that have water-conserving, sanitary, protective and other functions along with forests of protected areas occupy about 20 % of the total deforested territory.

In 1996, reforestation was carried out at the total area of 11 097 sq km. This area included 8 045 sq km where natural restoration of forest vegetation was assisted and 3 052 sq km where artifical reforestation was needed. Forest cultures planted on about 500 sq km in various periods did not survive, including one-year species on 44 square km. In comparison with 1995, reforestation areas reduced by 3 440 sq km. Forest cultures planted on about 500 sq km in various periods did not survive, including one-year species on 44 square km. In comparison with 1995, reforestation areas reduced by 3 440 square km.

The total of 32,834 fire episodes were recorded at the territories owned by the State Forest Fund. They affected 18 535 sq km of forests and 4 588 sq km of woodless lands. A major cause of woodfires is careless handling of fire sources (93%). Damage inflicted by fires amounted to about 30 billion US dollars (in prices for November 1996). Fire area and frequency vary considerably through years. The most fire-hazardous districts are concentrated in Middle and East Siberia, Yakutia, Transbaikalia and Far East.

The total area of pest and forest disease concentration sites was 42 068 sq km (0.4 %) in 1996. The largest areas were marked in the Kemerovo, Omsk, Tyumen and Amur oblasts, Republic of Bashkortostan, Primorski and Krasnoyarsk krais. The largest pest reproduction concentrations in Russia are formed by Siberian silk worm (average area - 22 247 sq km2 for the last 17 years) and most popular forest diseases are caused by butt-rot fungus (average area - 767 sq km for the last 17 years).

Dead forest area tends to be increasing. In 1996 it amounted to 5 252 sq km, being 3.2 times that in 1955. The most disastrous effect of atmospheric deposition on forest vegetation have been reported from Murmansk oblast (around Pechenganikel and Severonikel smelters), South Ural, and the vicinity of Norilsk (Norilsk smelters).

According to the Institute of World's Resources, Russia possesses 26% of all world's unexploited forests (3 448 thou sq km). Cutting these forest may contribute to the global climate change and the loss of habitats of many rare plants and animals including Amur tiger, leopard, etc. Also, minor ethnic groups living in boreal and temperate forest areas are likely to suffer great damages. A major risk factor for 85% of the so far unexploited Russian forests is timber harvesting coupled to fires, prospecting and extraction of mineral resources. Large boreal forest massifs threatened with degradation are situated along the Russian/Finnish border ("Green Belt of Carelia"), Arkhangelsk oblast, Khabarovsk and Primorsky krais.

3. Coastal and marine ecosystems

Russia is the world largest sea state and it has the most extended continental coasts on the planet. They are washed by 13 seas, among which are Baltic, Barents, Black, Caspian Seas, Sea of Japan, White, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, Bering, Chuckchee, and Azov Seas.

Russian coasts house about all zonal ecosystems - from polar deserts and arctic tundras to Far East broad-leaved forests, semiarid areas on the Dagestan coast of the Caspian Sea to Mediterranean-type xerophilic thin forests on Russian coasts of the Black Sea.

Russian coasts as "land-sea" ecotones are distinguished with extremely high biological and landscape diversities. It is Far East and Black Sea coasts that are indicative of the highest level of flora and fauna species richness, with local flora reaching 1 200 (1 100) species and local mammal fauna - 75 (70) species per 100 sq km, respectively. Sea coasts house the largest wetlands where dozens millions of waterfowl concentrate during nesting, migration and wintering - in the Volga delta, on the Murmansk coast, etc.

Russian sea coasts are habitats of many rare and threatened plant and animal species, including those introduced to the IUCN List of Threatened Species and Red Data Book of Russia: mammals - Atlantic walrus, gray seal, polar bear; birds - rare species of geese, barnacles, swans, and many birds of prey; fish - sturgeon and many salmon species.

Biota and ecosystems of the Russian maritime zone are conserved in 15 state zapovedniks and 2 national parks with the total area exceeding 120 thou sq km. By the year of 2005, another 15 zapovedniks are planned to be set up on more than 70 thou sq km. Zapovedniks combined with numerous zakazniks, natural monuments, protected fish spawning sites, protected littoral forests, and other protected areas constitute an ecological network. Only on the Russian coast of the Black Sea there are over 30 protected areas that are to be integrated into a regional ecological network - part of a unified network of Black Sea countries' protected areas (Turkey, Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, and Romania).

Three zapovedniks carry out target protection of maritime ecosystems, namely sea shores and shelf - Dalnevostochny Morskoy (Far East Marine), Komandorsky (Commander Islands)), and Ostrov Vrangela (Vrangel Island). In terms of the increasing oil and gas extraction on the sea shelf, a need for creation of marine protected areas on the Barents Sea coast, in the Chuckchee Sea and various sections of the Caspian Sea is becoming urgent.

Landscape diversity of the Russian sea coast is extremely abundant (Table 7), this being vital for biodiversity advancing.

Table 7 Types of the Russian coastline

A full-size evaluation of biological diversity for Russian highs seas has not been done so far. The most close to realistic results of their flora and fauna evaluating attempts date back to the 1960s (Table 8).

Table 8 Evaluation of species richness for key pools of organisms in Russian high seas (without specific identification of territorial waters)

Littoral fauna and flora reach their highest maturity on the Barents Sea coast where the width of the littoral achieves hundreds of meters with tides being 3 - 5 meters high. Several vertical zones can be identified: zone of dominating Semibalanus balanoides, Litorina saxsatilis zone, and that of macrophites (Ascophillum nodosum, Fucus vesiculosus). On soft ground, most of the littoral is inhabited by Fabricia sabella and Arenicola marina communities and the sublittorals are occupied by Laminaria sp.sp. communities.

Tides of other arctic seas are not that high (30 - 60 cm). Rising waves and storms overlap the tidal effect. Therefore littoral communities are depressed.

Far East manifests rich flora and fauna of the littoral and sublittoral owing to a diverse coastline and different tidal levels. Their communities are similar in structure to those of the Barents Sea. The Okhotsk Sea is notable for the highest tidal fluctuations among all Russian seas. In the Sea of Japan, sublittoral invertebrate animal and fish diversity increases drastically due to the penetration of warm streams from the south.

The Black and Azov Seas have no littoral area as they lack tidal fluctuations. Affected by waves, here is formed a pseudolittoral zone with poor biodiversity.

The Caspian Sea is specific of multi-year sea level fluctuations. In the last years it has been noted for transgression that leads to the formation of pioneering communities from flooded coastline sections. Introducents, such as Nereis and Abra species, that have found their habitats here quite recently are prevailing.

Great colonies of sea birds, bird clifs ("bazars"), endow coasts of the Barents, Bering and Okhotsk Seas with high originality. In the Barents Sea, sea bird colonies are located on small islands and on the Novaya Zemlia archipelago. Species most characteristic of the colonies are: guillemots (Uria aalga, U.lomiva), black guillemots (Cepphuss grylle, C.columba), little auk (Plautus alle), puffin (Fratercula arctica), and kittiwake (Rissa tridactila). In the north of Far East, they are joined by tufted puffin Fratefcula corniculata), horned puffin (Lunda cirrhata), auklet (Aethia sp.sp.), and ancient murrelet (Syntliboramphus antiquis).

Littoral shallow waters of the Black, Azov, Caspian and Japanese Seas are important sites of nesting, migration halts and winterings for sea birds and waterfowl.

Russian fauna of sea mammals includes three orders: the pinnepedes, whale-like, and predators. Twelve species from the Pinnepedea order (a Japanese subspecies of sea lion and a Mediterranean subspecies of seal-monk are extinct within Russian borders) have habitats in Russian sea waters. Sea lion population amounts to about 50,000 specimens on the Pacific Ocean islands. Two walrus subspecies (Laptev and Atlantic) are registered in the Red Data Book of Russia. Regeneration of the Atlantic subspecies is going on in the Barents Sea though very slowly hampered by the start of oil deposit development among other reasons.

From among seals (Phocidae) living in the Russian coastal waters, two species (Phoca vitulina and P. hispida) are recorded in the Red Data Book of Russia and six species are subject to commercial fishing.

Russian fauna comprises nominally 32 whale species, two of them being subjects of fishing - white whale and gray whale (there are special quotas for aboriginal people of the North inhabiting the Arctic and northern Far East coasts). Most of whales and dolphins of the Russian high seas are recorded in the Red Data Book of Russia.

Outlook for anthropogenic transformation of coasts and sea environment. Russian sea coasts are inhabited by more than 10 % population of the country, including residents of large cities, such as St. Petersburg, Kaliningrad, Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, Vladivostok, Novorossiisk, etc. The last years are noted for a growing role of coasts as a zone of freight transit, oil and gas transportation, and active economic development - building of terminals, ports, new industrial enterprises, and recreation complexes.

Oil and gas terminals and an oil pipeline are planned for building near Novorossiisk and along the Black Sea coast. This will bring a more burning character to the issue of expanding the protected areas network in this region, including set-up of a zapovednik on the Abrau peninsula (Utrish) where a northern extreme of Mediterranean-type xerophilic forests has remained preserved with habitats of several tens of endangered plant species and Mediterranean turtle (Testudo graeca).

Similar problems arise with regard to the development of oil and gas deposits and their transportation on the Barents shelf (Shtokman and Prirazlom deposits), in the maritime zone of the Nenets Autonomous Area, Yamal peninsula, in coastal waters of Sakhalin (Sakhalin-1 and Sakhalin-2 projects) and in the Caspian Sea northern and western aquatic areas. A mature network of protected areas has not been established there, yet, the biodiversity level is extremely high.

After collapse of the USSR, Russia is experiencing a drastic shortage of maritime recreation areas. That is why the recreation-use significance of Russian coasts of the Black and Azov Seas and, in sight, of the Caspian Sea is growing. Recreation capacity of a single Black sea coast amounts to several million people.

Russia possesses the richest wetland resources in the world. About 120 000 rivers with the total length of 2,3 mln. km and almost two million lakes, their total area being 370 000 sq km, are located on its territory. Swamps occupy 1,8 mln sq km and the coastline is around 60 thou km.

A major international mechanism for wetland protection is the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) in 1975 signed by Russia joined the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) in 1975. After the USSR collapsed, only three wetlands under the Ramsar Convention has remained on the territory of Russia. In 1994, a special RF Government Edict confirmed the international status for the three areas and assigned it for another 32 areas. Hence, the total of Russian wetlands of international importance has reached 35 at the territory of 10 700 thou sq km (Annex 5.2.2).

At this territory, a broad spectrum of wetland ecosystems are protected. A characteristic feature of Russian wetlands of international importance is a large amount of natural flatland and estuarian complexes as well as huge massifs of peat-bogs. Up to 35 mln waterfowl are annually concentrated on 35 wetlands of international importance during autumn migrations (12% of the Russian population).

In 1994-1997, State Committee for Environment Protection in cooperation with RF subjects and assisted by international organizations Wetlands International and Ramsar Convention Secretariat generated the legal protection mechanism and informational base on the status of wetlands. The effort on generalization of the preliminary information on the status of protected ecosystems and its determinant factors has been accomplished for all 35 wetlands. Regulations on conservation of 12 Ramsar territories have been developed to control human activities. Twenty six territories have been outlined and mapped.

Efforts on protection of 35 Ramsar wetlands are only first steps in solving this problem. Focusing on world practice, it is necessary to generate a network that would provide protection to highly valuable wetlands and encompass no less than 400 locations in long-term prospect. At present a specific list comprising 77 wetlands is already available. A Ramsar-territory status should be given to wetlands of international, national and regional importance. This long-term effort needs a specific program to be developed for the whole country.

PREFACE
PART 1
PART 2.1
PART 2.2
PART 2.3
PART 2.4
PART 2.5
PART 2.6
PART 2.7
PART 3
PART 4
ANNEXES
INFORMATION SOURCES

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