Part 2.2. Characterization of the Species and Genetic Diversities

1.2.1. Current status of flora and fauna

Till now no special master files to characterize flora diversity of Russia at a species level have existed. That is why our judgment had to be based, as a rule, on materials of a more general scope which deal with the territory of the former USSR.

Vascular plants. The analysis of taxonomic data given in a 30-volume "Flora of the USSR" (1934 - 1964), S.K. Cherepanov's reference book "Vascular Plants of Russia and Adjacent Countries" (these plants are encountered in "regional floras" of Siberia,Far East, etc.) and a number of large monographs on individual pools of plants enables to conclude that about 11,400 species of aboriginal and endemic plants belonging to 1,488 genera and 197 families are presently registered on the Russian Federation territory. Totally, this makes up approximately 50 % of the flora range in the former USSR. The identification of the flora taxonomic composition is far from being completed and annually the exploration of the country's territory yields dasozens of species earlier unknown to science; plants common for adjacent territories and multiple adventive species, particularly of the North American origin, are discovered to be growing in Russia. A lot of groups need a modern taxonomic revision.

Approximate evaluation shows that endemic species constitute ~ 20 %. Their exact number will have been specified by the end of 1998 within a specific research.

The RSFSR Red Data Book (1983) incorporates 440 Angiospermae, 11 Gymnospermae and 10 fern species. No less than 2,000 species are actually subjected to one or another degree of threat. Other calculations give a higher number (up to 3,000). About 75 % of vascular plants of Russian flora are represented in protected areas (state zapovedniks, national parks). Specific data on the number of species protected in zakazniks is lacking.

The effort on taking inventory of zapovedniks' flora is still underway.

Only few species are considered extinct as a result of human activities (IUCN category Ex-extinct). In fact, their number is likely to be higher (it is much more difficult to register an absolute lack of a plant than to state its availability). Out of 44 Angiospermae species included in the RSFSR Red Data Book, 36 % are being endangered and can be lost at any moment since they are being conserved neither in-situ nor ex-situ.

Among vascular plants of Russian wild flora, have been identified 1,363 species with various usable properties. 1,103 out of these species are used in scientific and traditional folk medicine (200 are officially permitted to use in medical practice), 350 - as foodstuffs. From among the species with obscure practical value, 460 grow on the RF territory. A lot of taxons, including medicinal plants (e.g. Sunssurea, Thimus, Astragalus, Potentilla, Alchemilla, Artemisia, etc.), have not been studied well enough in the applied aspect although they are of high economic potential ("Flora Resources of Russia and Adjacent Countries", v.v. 1 - 9).

Bryophyta. Russian flora contains representatives of all 3 classes of the moss-like: Anthocere, Hepatice, and Bryales. The total number of species is 1 370, 1 000 of which are attributed to Bryales. Endemic species make up only 0.1 % of the total Russian moss-like species, at the same time, up to 40 % of species have very small geographic ranges and 22 species among them are included in the Russian Red Data Book. Bryoflora of Western Siberia, Central Yakutia, certain areas of the Arctic Region and Far East and on the East of European Russia has not been studied well enough.

Algae. Over 9 000 sea, fresh water and soil algae species (macro- and microphytes) that amounts to about 1/4 of world algae flora are registered on Russian land and water areas. Due to large geographic ranges, the number of endemic species is not high and deviates from 2 - 3 % in inland basins to 6 - 10 % in sea ones. The highest degree of algae endemism is characteristic of the Lake Baikal. No more than 1 % of rare, relict and endangered species are identified, first of all, because these pools of plants have not been thoroughly studied. More than 160 algae species are of economic value and have found wide application in food, medicinal and other areas. Yet, the estimation of their natural resources, operation modes and resources renewing calls for an independent investigation. Project "Alga Flora of Russia" is being developed to generalize data on taxonomic diversity, geographic ranges, ecology and usable properties of all algae systematic pools.

Lichen. Russian lichen flora contains about 3 000 species. The largest fundamental master file on lichens of the former USSR, including Russia, is a multi-volume edition "Guidelines for Lichens", v.v. 1 - 5 (1971 - 1978) and its logic follow-up - "Guidelines for Lichens of Russia", v.v. 6 - 7 (1996 - 1997) developed at the Institute of Botany RAS (IB). This master catalogue incorporates detailed data on taxonomic diversity, geographic ranges, ecology and usable properties of 2,160 lichen species grouped in 167 genera and 45 families.

Lichen species normally have broad geographic ranges and this accounts for a relatively low number of endemic forms - no more than 50 in Russia. Simultaneously, certain pools are distinguished for elevated endemism (e.g. the Chaenothecopsis incorporates 7 Russian endemic species) and a high number of species group with those relict and rare: the USSR Red Data Book lists 36 of them and Russian Federation Red Data Book - 27.

Being characterized by a high response to unfavorable environmental changes, a lot of lichen species are nature indicators. In addition, they are utilized in medicine. Fodder value of lichens is well-known in Northern regions of Russia.

Fungi. Fungi are one of the key components of nature, they are specific of a high degree of diversity and part to actually each land ecosystem. Meanwhile, fungi are highly sensitive to anthropogenic exposure, thus involving urgent measures on their protection and rational use. Strategic significance of these measures is dictated by the ability of fungi to grow in various types of substrates (rhizo-fungi, xylotrophous, phylloplanous, etc.) and to form communities (cenophobous, cenophilous) with trophic specialization (saprophytous, symbiotrophous, epiphytous).

Myxomycetes refer to one of the less studied pools of fungi. On the territory of Russia, 211 species from 5 orders and 10 families responsible for about 30 % of world microbiota were identified though another 75 - 80 % of myxomycetes species known to science may be expected to be revealed.

A class of Oomycetes is represented by 350 water and land species in Russian flora, this corresponding to over 50 % of their total composition on this country's territory.

Russian microbiota comprises 323 species (on 600 plant species) pertaining to Ustilaginaceae - a key group of agricultural parasites, this making up about one third of their global diversity.

Macromycetes, a large and versatile, in biological and systematic aspects, pool of fungi that includes most of edible and micorhiza-building forms, has not been studied well so far and the total number of its species in Russia has not been estimated. The Russian Red Data Book (1988) enumerates 17 subject-to-protection species. A list comprising 241 species from the category of the rare and 103 species in need of protection was compiled at the IB RAS.

Inventory of Russian fauna has not been completed yet. A relatively comprehensive study was done on vertebrates. Invertebrates, especially insects, have been studied poorly. Modern taxonomic reviews and revision for major taxonomic groups of insect and fauna have been lacking so far.

Vertebrate animals. Vertebrate animal fauna of Russia is rather well investigated and enumerates over 1,300 species falling in 7 classes, this being responsible for 2.7 % of global diversity (Table 9).

Table 9 Diversity, endemism and status of vertebrate animal species in the Russian Federation

Fauna of birds, mammals and Cyclostomata is characteristic of a wide range (7 % and 40 % of world diversity, respectively). The following Russian regions are defined as those with a high degree of species richness: Northern Caucasus, South of Siberia and South of Far East. These regions are also noted for high fauna endemism what is motivated by their historical role as refugiums of Glacial period. A comparatively high species diversity is also characteristic of central and southern regions of European Russia in broad-leaved forest and steppe zones. As a whole, species richness has roots both in history and in specific features of a modern geographic zoning system.

Rare and almost extinct species of vertebrate animals in Russia, according to the RSFSR Red Data Book (1988) amount to 197 (~15 %). This testifies to an unfavorable status of fauna. Under current conditions of transient economy and structural crisis, the risk of losing the most valuable part of vertebrate diversity is growing.

Mammalia are the best-known group of vertebrate animals of Russia. The number of species accounts to about 7 % of their world diversity. Teriofauna is not distinguished by high endemism and the overall country's territory does not pertain to regions specific of a high level of mammal species diversity. The order of Rodentia is the richest in species. The highest species diversity is specific of the Northern Caucasus, southern Siberia and southern Far East. For the last decades, the application of cytogenetic methods has enabled to identify numerous species (twin species) that had not been previously differentiated by taxonomists.

About 23 % of mammal species are included in the RSFSR Red Data Book. Eleven species are represented only by their subspecies and individual populations. Due to a different status of certain subspecies within one species (sea otter, snow leopard, etc.), the Russian Red Data Book employs a differentiated approach to the evaluation of their nature protection status. Another 64 mammal species and subspecies are planned for introducing in the Red Data Book of Russia.

About 90 mammal species of Russia (33 %) are under threat both on regional (mainly in Central and Western European countries) and on global levels (39 species or 14 %). The latter, above all, refers to a number of whale species and subspecies of Pantera-like large cats. Note that some species being endangered on a regional level are widespread and abundant in Russia, e.g. brown bear (Ursus arctos) and wolf (Canis lupus).

About 61 % of Russian mammal species diversity (excluding the whale-like) and about 60 % of species recorded in the Russian Red Data Book are encountered on protected areas (Status of Biological resources..., 1994). Species and subspecies of Pinnipedia (Odobenidae and Phocidae families) and Ungulata (Artiodactila), with the share of those rare and protected in zapovedniks among them not exceeding 40 %, are in the worst condition.

Russian seas and inland waters are populated or visited during migrations by 56 species of sea mammals including 40 cetaceans, 15 pinnipeds, and sea otter (Mustelidae). About 50% of sea mammals and some of their local populations are included in the Russian Red Data Book, the IUCN Red List, annexed lists of CITES and Bonn Convention (e.g. Halichoerus grypus, Phoca sibirica, Balaenoptera acutorostrata, B.borealis, B.physalis, B.musculus, Physeter catodon, Balaena mysticetus, Hyperoodon ampullatus, Monodon monoceros, Phocoenoides trui, Campus griseus, Globicephala melaenas, Ornicus orca, Ziphus cavirostris, Eumetopias jubatus, Phoca vitulina, etc.). The Okhotsk-Korean population of the grey whale (Eschrichtius gibbosus) appears to be on the verge of extinction numbering not more than 100 animals. Their summertime habitats are in close proximity to oil extraction sites on the north-east Sakhalin shelf (international project "Sakhalin-2"). With this in mind, SCEP is now developing a proposal to organize a special zakaznik to preserve summer feeding grounds of these whales.

Approximately 50 land mammal species are commercial and non-professional hunting objects. Among them, the most valuable are widespread and numerous Ungulata species: Cervus elaphus, Alces alces, Capriolus capriolus and C. pygargus, Sus scrofa, Ursus arctos; about 20 fur animal species - Martes martes, M. zibelina, Lutra lutra, Alopex lagopus, etc.

Aves fauna has been extensively studied in Russia (732 species) and makes up 7.6 % of this class world diversity with almost absolute absence of endemic species. The largest number (515 species) are nesting birds including 27 that nest only in Russia. The most numerous are Passeriformes, Charadriiformes and Anseriformes. About 9 % of bird species are registered in the Red Data Book of Russia.

About 9 % of bird species are considered rare on a regional level (mostly representatives of Falconiformes) and 30 species are recorded in the IUCN Red List. Among them, there are species attributed to EN and VU categories (Pelecanus crispus, Ciconia boyciana, Crus leucogeranus, etc.). Among nesting birds, 83 % of species are found on zapovedniks' areas and a similar indicator for rare species is about 60 %. Most alarming is the status of Anseriformes loculating in tundra, forest tundra and steppe zones as well as that of several Gruiformes.

Most economically valuable are waterfowl - Anas, Anser and Galliformes - which are key sport hunting objects.

Reptilia fauna of Russia is not multiple (75 species) due to rather severe climate on the most part of the territory. It constitutes approximately 1.2 % of global diversity in this class of vertebrates. Endemic species are lacking. The richest species diversity is observed on the South of Far East and in Northern and Western Caucasus. A more detailed taxonomic revision of Vipera and Agkistrodon species may extend the number of species.

About 15 % of species refer to the category of rare and under extinction on a national level, 4 % are recorded in the IUCN Red List. Over a half of reptilia species are found in zapovedniks, including all tortoise species (Testudines) and about 30 % of Squamata registered in the RSFSR Red Data Book . The second edition of the Red Data Book of Russia will be supplemented with 21 reptilia species.

Economic significance of most species is associated with their commercial value on the world market of wild animals. The latter presents a tangible threat for tortoise and snake groups and alike.

Amphibia fauna of Russia constitutes as low as 0.6 % of global diversity in this class of vertebrates (27 species). There no endemic species. About 15 % of the species are recorded in the Red Data Book of Russia. Three species are under threat in the European region - Triturus vittatus, Bufo calamita, and Pelodytes caucasicus. Almost all amphibia species (96 %) are encountered on protected areas. Endemic value of the amphibia is not high. Another 8 amphibian species are in plan of the second edition of the Red Data Book of Russia.

Pisces fauna of Russia is diverse and still understudied. Many fish species, for example Salmoniformes, Cypriniformes, etc., form multiple varieties, races, subspecies, including endemic, that differ in ecological and morphological aspects within a wide geographic range. To specify their taxonomic status, further investigations are needed with the application of updated cytogenetic and genetic methods. Fish fauna comprises 268 fresh-water, semimigrating and migrating species (sea\fresh-waters) and no less than 400 species observed in coastal waters. Totally, this constitutes about 2 % of this class global diversity. Fresh-water fauna is indicative of a high per cent of endemic species. The Lake Baikal basin ranks first in endemics. The highest species diversity is specific of the above region and the Amur basin.

The Red Data Book of Russia lists nine taxons (~4.5 % of inland waters fauna), one species of which - Acipenser sturio - is registered in the IUCN Red List (status EN). The evaluation of the environmental status is accomplished on a subspecies level and in the case of Thymalllus arcticus baicalensis infrasubspecies brevipinnis even on a lower level. Sakhalin sturgeon and white salmon are also recorded in the International Red List with the EV status. As a whole, almost 8.5 % of fresh-water, semimigrating and migrating species are endangered on a regional level. The second edition of the Red Data Book of Russia will be supplemented with 44 fish taxons.

Current state of a whole range of species, subspecies and individual geographic fish shoals are under threat on a national level due to both water environment deterioration (various types of pollution, control over flow of rivers) and extensive commercial use, including poaching. This concerns actually all sturgeon species (basic world reserves of this family are concentrated in Russia) and a considerable part of salmons and carps.

Priority lines of the fish conservation strategy in Russia include protection of waterbodies and breeding grounds, establishment of new aquaculture facilities, maintenance of natural hydrobiont collections (fish-ponds, aquaria, fish-breeding farms, zoos), and cryobanks.

Commercial fishing occupies one of the most important places in the country's economics. Above all, sturgeons, most of salmons and a number of perches and carps are assigned to the most economically valuable fish.

A class of Cyclostomata is represented by 8 species (1 species from the Myxine and 7 species from Petromyzontidae family), this corresponding to 40 % of this group global diversity.

Three species are endangered on a regional level, Ukrainian lamprey (Lampetra mariae) among them, which is recorded in the IUCN Red List with a VU status. Status of all lampreys living in European Russia is alarming and they need legal protection. Four Cyclostomata species are planned to be included in the second edition of the Red Data Book of Russia. Caspian (Caspiomyzon) and river (Lampetra fluviatilis) lampreys are of commercial value.

Invertebrate animals. No official and trustworthy information on invertebrate animal fauna of Russia is available at present. This situation has historical background and dates back to the years of the former USSR when biological resources of Russia were not singled out from those of the whole country. Moreover, all-USSR indicators for invertebrate animals often had a tentative character. They were characterized by a constant increase of species from 96,000 to 106,000 as a result of growing understanding of domestic fauna.

As a whole, Russian invertebrate fauna has not been investigated comprehensively. Currently, only a rough amount of invertebrate species in the Russian Federation fauna can be discussed: 130,000 - 150,000, or about 10 % of global diversity. Insects predominate in this fauna (97 % of all species). A share of their species in the global amount among orders deviates from 4 to 30 %. (Table 10).

A relatively narrow range of invertebrate species in the RF results from the country's northern geographic position. Most of its territory (over 75 %) is characterized by rather monotonous landscapes of taiga and tundra zones with a poor species range. Extinction of many species caused by climate changes at the end of the Neogene system and in the Quaternary period also played its negative role.

Russian rare and extinct invertebrates are represented in the RSFSR Red Data Book (1983) by 49 species, or 0.033 % of their total number. This points to a safety of domestic fauna as a whole. Yet, if we consider these indicators in terms of the data from the List of Animals recommended for the second edition of the RF Red Data Book, a clear tendency for the growth of the number of species (to 155) in need of urgent protection and extension of the number of classes from 2 to 9 and that of types - from 2 to 5 may be marked.

A transient period of Russian economics as a whole and weakness of local authorities in RF subjects enhance the risk of losing this part of biodiversity.

Research efforts undertaken in a number of areas should be considered as those of priority in the field of study and description of species diversity. First, the efforts on taking inventory of this group of animals throughout Russia and in specific regions are still standing urgent. Second, ecological studies on invertebrates falling in neither usable nor harmful pool, this approach having been characteristic of Soviet zoological science, need further extension and deepening. Third, efforts on landscape-zoogeorgaphic registration to identify animal types according to zones they inhabit should be fulfilled.

A top-priority objective in conservation and regeneration of biodiversity elements is carrying out research focused on the identification of invertebrates in need of urgent protection both on a national (federal) and on a regional (Federation subjects) level. This will enable to understand a distinct relation between Red Data Books of two levels and simultaneously to achieve a more efficient use of extremely poor technical and financial support to the current animal protection system.

Table 10. Diversity, endemism and status of invertebrate animal species in the Russian Federation

Note: * - figures in brackets stand for the number of species recommended for the 2nd edition of the Russian Federation Red Data Book by the RF SCEP Commission for Rare and Extinct Animals, Plants and Fungi; ** - figures given in the bottom line denote the number of species according to the USSR Red Data Book (1984).

All existing animal breeds and plant sorts are registered in special catalogues: State Catalogue for Protected Advances in Breeding and State Catalogue for Advances in Breeding Approved for Practical Implementation (the term "advances in breeding" means sorts of plants and breeds of animals). These data are listed in Tables 11-13.

The number of many domestic agricultural animal breeds has reduced to the limit threatening for their existence. A particularly hazardous situation is observed in poultry farming where almost all domestic breeds are fully withdrawn from production and are conserved only by non-professional poultry breeders and at special collection farms.

The concept of the agricultural animals' genofund as part of national wealth was a starting point for the Federal Program Conservation of the Genofund of Small-in-Number Breeds of Agricultural Animals which envisages incentives for conservation primarily of aboriginal breeds through creation of pedigreed stock farms and genetic banks.

Table 11. The number of animal breeds in the Russian Federation recorded in the catalogue for 29.09.97

Table 12 The number of plant sorts in the Russian Federation for 29.09,97

Table 13 The number of protected plant sorts in the Russian Federation for 1.10.97

Ex-situ biological diversity conservation measures are taken to supplement efforts for in-situ conservation of flora and fauna species.

Ex-situ conservation of Russian biodiversity components - genetic resources of wild and domesticated flora and fauna species - is accomplished through a variety of methods: creating and extending microorganism culture collections (generally those of microbial genetic resources), plant and animal tissue collections; creating and managing gene banks (including cryobanks) and seed banks; captive breeding and reproduction of animals, artificial propagation of plants with their potential re-introduction into the wild (setting up of special breeding centers, arboreta, and farms); creating and maintaining collections of living organisms in zoos, aquaria., botanic gardens and dendroparks.

Ex-situ microbial genetic resources. For the nearest future priority should be set on the actions addressing a sustainable targeted and centralized financial support to the existing collections, being minimum sufficient for preventing their loss, together with simultaneous inventory measures for maintained funds within independent expertise; elaboration of specific recommendations to reduce duplication. Efforts should also be undertaken to: specify collection profiles (public, institutional, industrial, etc.), rules for the access to bioresources, and rights for ownership and exchange of cultures (including international) in terms of the Convention on Biodiversity and Concept of Sustainable Development; to assess possibilities in the national-level application in Russia of the World Federation of Culture Collections, IUMS and IUMS proposals on the creation of an international network of Microbial Genetic Resources Centers to coordinate the agreed strategies of ex-situ bioresources conservation.

The term "collections" (particularly in Russia) also implies quite a broad variety of laboratories and institutions, a part of their activities being identification, study, and conservation of microorganism cultures and their presentation to users. Collections vary in their specialization (profile), size of maintained funds, dominating focusing on deposit functions in connection with the national or international patenting procedures, etc.

We have prepared a list of Russian collections of microorganisms and culture tissues (Annex 5.2.5). A criterion for its composition served the commitment of the listed collections to culture depositing in connection with the national patenting procedure. Among the collections given the annexed list, only collections NN 1, 2 and 3 are International Depositing Agencies operating under the Budapest Treaty on Mutual Acknowledgment of Depositing in Connection with the Patenting Procedure.

Both species and strain diversity being maintained in microorganism collections are reflected in catalogues which are either published or/and stored in electronic databases. The annexed list of collections does not cover all collection-focused laboratories. In Russia, there are laboratories with reviewing functions under the WHO systems, institutions of sanitary and phyto-sanitary profiles, etc. However most of these collection-focused centers do not publish catalogues and, due to that, it is rather difficult to evaluate a scope and character of their funds. . Active culture collections belong to institutions and institutes under various kinds of departments: Russian Academy of Sciences, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Ministry of Public Health, Education, Agriculture and others.

This results in the actual lack of national-level responsibility for ex-situ microbial genetic resources conservation. Accordingly, plans for the collection activities and regulatory materials needed for their routine work are, in most cases, of sectoral character.

The analysis of catalogues published by collections and other sources shows that in many cases it is unfeasible for collections to characterize the biodiversity managed by them in line with modern taxonomic and nomenclature standards. Therefore, the generally accepted professional language is often substituted for "sectoral slang", for example, when the sustained microorganisms are grouped according to the features of their immediate use ("agricultural", "medical", etc.) or identification sources ("marine", "soil", etc.). Apart from hampering the evaluation of actually sustainable biodiversity, this slows down any effective communications.

Certain positive experience has been gained for the last years in the course of the operation of International Microorganism Depositing Agencies in connection with the patenting procedure (IDA) under the Budapest Treaty. The existing recommendations were discussed and then agreed upon in detail by experts and delegates of all Governments-Parties. Thus, these recommendation has become minimum though obligatory standards for fulfilling the IDA function of the Parties' collections. This experienceon coordinated ex-situ conservation and use of microbial biodiversity seems reasonable to be closely studied and then used to achieve objectives originating from the implementation of the Convention on Biodiversity. In the opinion of the professional community, it could bring certain details and optimization to national mechanisms for the realization of the sovereignty principle concerning ex-situ conserved microbial biodiversity.

Plants ex-situ. (Annex 5.2.5-5.2.7). Although particular attention to biodiversity issues has been being paid since comparatively recent time, botanic gardens of Russia have accumulated significant collections of rare and endangered plants. By the beginning of the 80s, botanic gardens of the former USSR were growing 1,117 plants species that required protection. They were represented by 5,000 specimens of various origins (Rare and Endangered Species..., 1983). Although the exact total number of the species in need of protection on the territory of the former USSR was not estimated, approximate calculations give the figure of about 2,000. Hence, more than the half of their number was cultivated.

Out of 440 species of Angiospermae plants listed in the RSFSR Red Data Book (1988), 274 species are grown in Russian botanic gardens, all 11 Gymnospermae species are cultivated in culture and only 3 fern species (Pyrrosia lingua, Osmunds claytoniana and Leprotorumohra miqueliana) from among 11 are found available in gardens' collections. In botanic gardens of Kirovsk and Stavropol, the O(Ex) category is represented by Gladiolus palustris and Solla scilloides though the species' starting material was taken not from the wild but from foreign botanic gardens in the form of seeds. 33 species attributed to category 1 (E) are grown in the culture and 17 species among them are represented in the collections of three or more botanic gardens (i.e. they have a sound insurance fund in the culture): Galanthus boykewwitschianus, Aristolocola manshuriensis, Panax ginseng and others. Category 2 (V) is represented by 84 species and 44 of them are available in the collections of 3 or more botanic gardens.

Currently there are 76 botanic gardens and other introduction centers, their efforts being coordinated by the Russian Council of Botanic Gardens, on the territory of Russia. Among them, the following are considered to be the largest having benefited at most to the ex-situ conservation of endangered plants:

1. N.V. Tsitsin Central Botanic Gardens RAS, Moscow (PBG RAS). Total area - 361 ha. The collections of wild and cultivated flora amount to over 21,000 items (over 11,000 species, forms and varieties and about 10,000 garden forms and sorts). The rare and endangered plantsÒ collection comprises 320 species.

2. Botanic Gardens of the V.L. Komarov Botanic Institute RAS (Saint Petersburg). Total area - 22.6 ha. The collections accumulated 11,664 taxons with over 300 species of rare and endangered plants of Russia and adjacent countries among them.

3. Botanic Gardens of the Research and Production Association "Niva Stavropolia" RAAS (Stavropol). Total area - 207 ha. The collection funds contain over 5,000 taxons. Rare and threatened plants are represented by 291 species.

4. Botanic Gardens of the M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University (Moscow). Total area - 36 ha. The Gardens manages 6,500 species, sorts, and cultivated plants, including 74 rare and threatened species of Russian flora and 92 - of Moscow oblast flora.

5. Botanic Gardens of RAS Urals Division (Ekaterinburg) (BG RAS UrD). Total area - 50 ha. The collections incorporate 3,000 taxons, including 130 rare species of the Urals.

6. Botanic Gardens-Institute of RAS Far East Division (Vladivostok). Total area - 170 ha. The collections comprise more than 4,000 taxons. The number of rare and endangered species - 120, 100 among them - local flora species.

7. Polar-Alpine Botanic Gardens-Institute RAS (Kirovsk). Total area - 350 ha. The number of species in collections is over 2,000 with 120 of them - rare and threatened.

8. Central Siberian Botanic Gardens of RAS Siberian Division (Novosibirsk) (CSBG RAS SD). Total area - 1,062 ha. The botanic collections contain about 5,000 taxons, rare and endangered species - 92.

Botanic gardens have accumulated sound practical experience in growing rare and endangered plants, designed and advanced various methodical approaches to rare plant conservation in the culture. Baseline methods are listed below.

1. Many botanic gardens practice an archaic technique (on small beds) for growing rare plants. This method is being criticized by many specialists as it does not provide a sufficiently representative range of the ex-situ conserved species genotype. At the same time, a necessity of creating such collections is emphasized for the reproduction of rare useful plants or as educational expositions.

2. The creation of modeled artificial cenosis as a way of conserving endangered species on the florogenetic and phytocenotic basis is intensely practiced in Russian botanic gardens (PBG RAS, CSBG RAS SD, BG RAS UrD, etc.). This trend has been advancing due to the existence of botanical-geographical expositions in many botanic gardens. These expositions place each introduced plant species into its appropriate place or ecological niche in combination, ecology- and phytocenosis-based, with other plant species. The creation of ecological-phytocenotic pools of plants enables to extend drastically the indroducents' species composition in the context of new ecological niches. In so doing, various niches are enriched with relevant species, incl. rare ones, and plant species are selected in terms of their environment for each stratum. For example, the PBG RAS exposition of Far East broad-leaved and coniferous broad-leaved species under the arboreal plant cover demonstrates such rare species, as: Phododendron schlippenbachii, Deutzia glabrata, Daphne kamtschatica, Hydrabgera petiolaris, and in the herbaceous stratum - Hepatica asiatica, Flritillaria ussuriensis, Acjnitum desoolavyi, Paeonia vernalisl, etc. Since 1969, the CSBG RAS SD has been creating an exposition of relict vegetation - chernevaya taiga with dominating arboreal species: Abies sibirica, Tilia sibirica and Pinus sibirica. This cenosis preserves 17 relict types with seed and vegetative reproduction.

In the Botanical Gardens RAS UrD, for the specific purpose of growing rare plants, were set up 5 land sections imitating various habitats: steppe, rock and mountain-steppe, mountain-tundra, meadow and forest plants sections and the one for orchids.

3. The method for regeneration and introduction of plant communities has been developing in the Stavropol BG since 1959. It is based on sowing of multi-species wild seed mixtures harvested by mechanized means in herbaceous ecosystems of semiarid and steppe zones into pre-treated soil. Thus regenerated communities are added up, by sowing or planting, with tubers, bulbs and rhizomes of plants intended for conservation. In the Gardens were set up sections of meadow and mixed-grass-gramineous steppe, birch, oak and beech woods in the herbage of which there a lot of normally evolving and fruit-bearing species, including rare and endangered ones. Multi-year observations have shown that none of the species fell out of the meadow steppe community comprising 250 species though the role of individual species in the aspect was constantly changing.

4. The method for introducing endangered species into wild vegetation of botanic gardens is being developed in the Polar-Alpine Botanical Gardens-Institute. It lies in setting up grounds with rare species in wild vegetation conserved on the territory of a garden or park. The species are not specially managed and their micro-populations are created. Similar efforts are carried out in other botanic garden with reserved sections of wild vegetation: in PBG RAS, Yakutsk BG, BG of the Ekaterinburg University.

Despite the success achieved by leading botanic gardens in ex-situ plant growing, the protection of endangered species ex-situ in the form of sample conservation under artificial conditions has certain demerits reasoned by the following: - a small number of specimens able to survive in the culture; - a methodically wrong selection of samples for their transfer into the culture that does not provide a sufficient representative range of the protected genofund; - a growing probability of autocrossing leading to a decrease in fertility or its full loss and to homozygosity; - a limited genotype diversity of material obtained in vegetative reproduction; - failing viability of many plants in the culture, particularly under artificial environment, e.g. in conservatories.

These reasons lead almost inevitably to one or another degree of genetic erosion of an ex-situ conserved taxon. Anyhow, a thorough selection of the starting material that ensures the highest attainable conservation of genotype diversity, precise documentation, employment of various lines and clones in cross pollination, and proper spatial isolation of protected collection funds can ensure a considerable erosion decrease. Efficiency of the ex-situ plant genofund conservation can be also elevated sharply through the creation of plant gene banks.

The most feasible and low-cost method for the conservation of plant genetic resources lies in establishing seed banks for plant seeds' long-time storage at low positive temperatures (+50C) and mild freezing (to 20 - 250C). The Russian Federation seed bank for cultivated plants was founded in 1976 (Krasnodar krai) though its focusing on low positive temperatures has made lasting seed storage unfeasible without sowing. Building of a cryobank with a deep-freeze regime (-1600C) is underway in the. All-Russia Institute for Plant Growing (ARIPG, Saint Petersburg). Most of this bank's cultivated species seed collections is being maintained under mild freezing (-18 - -200C). Since 1982, experimental works have been conducted to study a deep and mild freezing effect on seed viability, growth and evolution of plants grown from frozen seeds, their chromosome apparatus, etc. The work was launched in the All-Russia Scientific Research Institute of Nature Protection (ARSRI NP) and lately has been taken up by the Principal Botanic Gardens RAS. In ARSRI NP was created a seed bank for wild plants (protected, medicinal, ornamental, etc.) under low positive temperature regimes (150 species) and since 1986 a seed cryobank has been operating at the Institute of Plants Physiology RAS (120 species).

Conservation of animals ex-situ (tables 14-15). For the last years in Russia, the number of institutions responsible for ex-situ animal conservation has diminished for economic reasons in biodiversity conservation. We can identify 3 areas in ex-situ animal conservation in Russia:

1. Captive breeding of rare animals aimed at their re-introduction into the wild to support existing, restore lost and create new populations ex-situ.
2. Breeding of economically valuable species to increase resources of populations in current use. 3. Management and breeding of animals for cultural and educational purposes.

Institutions of the latter area (mostly zoos) carry out activities on breeding animals usable for cultivation and implementation of in-situ re-introduction programs and those addressing economic areas (hunting, fishery, fur animal farming). Priority lies with breeding of vertebrate animals listed in the RF Red Data Book and IUCN Red List.

Table 14 Ex-situ Conservation of Land Vertebrates in Russian Zoological Breeding Centers in 1997

Table 15 Ex-situ Collections of Vertebrates in Russian Zoos, Zoological Gardens and Aquaria in 1997

A crane breeding farm of the Oka biosphere state zapovednik is engaged in compiling a pedigreed crane register (Grus leucogeranus) ex-situ. The Moscow Zoo has established the Eurasian Regional Association of Zoos and Aquaria (ERAZA) that offers consultative and methodical assistance to CIS zoos and manages a periodic edition Informational Bulletin of Zoological Collections. The Moscow Zoo is a participant to EEPs (European Breeding Programs for Rare Species) that cover 23 bird and mammal species.

A notable drawback in the current state of efforts on ex-situ animal conservation in Russia is a low number of actually protected domestic fauna species and insufficient number of zoological breeding centers. In addition, there are few technologies developed for mass ex-situ cultivation of animals in the amount that would meet needs of re-introduction into the wild. Russia has been lacking so far specialized cryobanks for storage of genomes of wild land vertebrates as their creation requires large capital investments. There is also no integrated scientific-methodical and informational center for ex-situ animal conservation that would generalize data on all animal pools and institutions having animals ex-situ.

Keeping of Red Data Book of the Russian Federation and Red Data Books of RF subjects as key elements of the biodiversity conservation ranks among the most important efforts on the conservation of rare and endangered species. The Russian Federation Red Data Book was initiated in 1982 by the Edict of the RSFSR Council of Ministers. A new Edict of the Russian Federation Government on the initiation of the Russian Federation Red Data Book and Red Data Books of RF subjects was issued in 1996.

The RF SCEP was entrusted with keeping up of the Russian Federation Red Data Book and scientific support to it was placed on the All-Russia Scientific Research Institute of Nature Protection.

To provide keeping of the Russian Federation Red Data Book, the Commission for Rare and Endangered Animals, Plants and Fungi has been established. It consists of leading scientists from RAS and sectoral institutes, universities, and specialists from various ministries and state sectoral bodies. Currently lists of rare and endangered animal species have been compiled to be included in the new edition of the Russian Federation Red Data Book (Annex 5.2.8). This list is much wider if compared with the 1st edition and includes 155 invertebrate, 4 Cyclostomata, 39 fish, 8 amphibian, 221 reptile, 123 bird, and 65 mammal species. Some of animal species are represented on the levels of subspecies or individual populations.

18 Russian Federation subjects have regional Red Data Books. By now lists of rare and endangered plant and animal species have been prepared and approved in 39 subjects, lists of rare plants - in another 6 subjects and a list of rare animals in 1 more RF subject.

PREFACE
PART 1
PART 2.1
PART 2.2
PART 2.3
PART 2.4
PART 2.5
PART 2.6
PART 2.7
PART 3
PART 4
ANNEXES
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